Holy Liturgy

Liturgy is a term that refers to acts of worship that are performed by the members of a religious group.  A liturgy is also called a rite or a ritual.  Most religions have their own liturgy.  But within a religion, various churches and denominations may develop their own kinds of liturgy. 

 

A liturgy may combine words, music, and gestures.  It also may include religious objects, such as altars and special clothing; and symbolic acts, such as pouring or sprinkling water as part of the ceremony of baptism.  Some liturgical services are held at certain times of the day, week, or year.  They may take place on a fast day, festival, or Sabbath. 

 

The principal liturgical service in Christianity is called the Eucharist, Holy Communion, or the Mass.  The Eastern churches call the Eucharist the Divine Liturgy.  The most important events of the Christian liturgical year are Christmas and Easter.  The most important annual services in the Jewish liturgy are Rosh Ha-Shanah and Yom Kippur. 

 

Christianity has many forms of liturgy.  The most widespread ones are the Byzantine rite and the Latin, or Roman, rite.  The Byzantine rite is used by the Greek Orthodox Church and several other Eastern churches.  The Latin rite is used by the Roman Catholic Church. 

 

Today, most Western Christian liturgies are undergoing reform in both style and text.  The reforms include a stronger emphasis on the Bible and more involvement of the congregation.

 

Communion, in Christian churches, is the sacrament (holy ceremony) of the Lord's Supper.  The Gospels and I Corinthians report that at the Last Supper, Jesus told His disciples to eat, for this was His body, and to drink, for this was His blood.  Many Protestants call the sacrament the Lord's Supper.  Anglicans, Roman Catholics, and members of the Eastern Orthodox churches call the ceremony the Eucharist or Holy Communion.  Some Protestant churches observe the ritual monthly or weekly.  Others observe it four times a year.  Roman Catholics must receive Communion during the Easter season, and often they receive weekly or daily Communion. 

 

Some churches use individual wafers of unleavened bread and, especially among Protestant churches, individual glasses of wine.  The modern liturgical movement has proposed celebrating the sacrament more frequently.  It also proposes using a shared loaf of bread and a common cup of wine.

 

 

Eastern Orthodox Churches are the major Christian churches in Greece, Russia, Eastern Europe, and western Asia.  As a federation of churches, they are united by common beliefs and traditions.  Individually, they are usually called by their national names, such as the Greek Orthodox Church or the Russian Orthodox Church.  About 170 million people belong to the Eastern Orthodox Churches.  Eastern Orthodox beliefs are based on the Bible and on holy tradition (doctrines worked out mostly during the early centuries of Christianity). 

 

History:  For the first 300 years after the death of Jesus Christ, Christianity struggled for survival in the pagan Roman Empire.  Today's distinction between the Eastern Orthodox and Western (Roman Catholic and Protestant) churches did not exist. 

 

A turning point in church history came in 313 when Roman Emperor Constantine the Great granted Christians freedom to practice their religion.  He called the First Nicene Council in 325.  This was the first of seven ecumenical councils held between 325 and 787.  The councils established church organization and doctrine.  In 330, Constantine moved his capital from Rome to a new city which he named in his honour, Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey).  The city became the centre of eastern Christendom. 

 

The year 1054 is generally considered the date of the schism (split) between the Eastern and Western churches.  The two churches had been drifting apart for hundreds of years before the final schism.  Many political, cultural, and geographical factors contributed to the final split.  Two religious issues are generally considered the chief causes of the break.  One issue concerned a phrase added to the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed called the filioque.  The other issue was the Roman papal claims to authority over the entire church.  Both issues led to a historic dispute in the 800's between Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople, and Pope Nicholas I. Disputes continued until, in 1054, delegates of Pope Leo IX issued an anathema (solemn curse of excommunication) against the patriarch of Constantinople.  The patriarch then summoned a council that excommunicated the papal delegates. 

 

Ecumenical Patriarch Athenagoras I held a historic meeting with Pope Paul VI in 1964 in Jerusalem.  The meeting was the first between a patriarch of Constantinople and a Pope since 1439.  In 1965, the two religious leaders lifted the mutual anathemas of 1054.

 

Organization:  The Eastern Orthodox Churches consist of several independent and self-governing churches and some churches that are not completely self-governing.  Four of the self-governing churches hold places of special honour for historical reasons.  They are, in order of seniority, the churches of Constantinople (in Turkey), Alexandria (in Egypt), Antioch (Damascus, Syria), and Jerusalem.  Other major self-governing churches, in order of seniority, are the churches of Russia, Georgia, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Greece, Albania, Poland, the Czech Republic and Slovakia, and the United States of America.  Eastern Orthodox Churches give the greatest honour to the leader of the Church of Constantinople, called the ecumenical patriarch.  But the ecumenical patriarch has jurisdiction only over his own church. 

 

Eastern Orthodox Churches located in Canada, Finland and other western European countries, central Africa, Japan, and Sinai (Egypt), are not yet fully self-governing.  They were established by missionaries and settlers from Orthodox Church countries and are supervised by a self-governing church. 

 

Nearly all people in Greece and the Greek-Cypriot half of Cyprus belong to an Eastern Orthodox Church.  The Church cooperates closely with the government in these countries. 

 

Clergy:  There are three major orders of Orthodox clergy--bishops, priests, and deacons.  There are also two chief minor orders--sub deacons and readers.  Deacons, sub deacons, and readers assist the priest during religious services.  The spiritual life and administration are governed by the principle of shared responsibility between the clergy and laity (non clergy).  The laity often takes part in the election of the clergy. 

 

Doctrines:  Eastern Orthodox Churches teach that their church is faithful to the teachings of the Apostles and free from errors in matters of doctrine.  But they do not believe that any one church member is infallible.  The Bible and holy tradition are the most important sources of Eastern Orthodox teachings.  Church services are based on the Bible, especially on the Psalms. 

 

The Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed expresses the beliefs of Eastern Orthodoxy.  The creed probably dates from the First Council of Constantinople in A.D. 381.  It is the only creed used in church services. 

 

Eastern Orthodox Christians disagree with Western Christians over the Nicene Creed and the doctrine of the Holy Trinity implied in the filioque addition.  Orthodox Christians use the original text of the creed, which states that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father.  They base their belief on a passage in the Gospel of Saint John (John 15: 26).  Roman Catholics and other Western Christians use a later form of text, which states that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and from the Son.  This additional phrase is the filioque. 

 

Services in the Orthodox churches consist of the Divine Liturgy, the Divine Office, and Occasional Offices.  The Divine Liturgy is the celebration of the Eucharist.  The Divine Office consists of prayers and readings called Matins and Vespers and several lesser offices.  Occasional Offices include services for baptisms, marriages, and funerals.  All services are sung or chanted, usually in the language of the congregation. 

 

Holy Sacrament

Sacrament, in Christianity, is a solemn observance.  It is an outward sign that a faithful worshipper is receiving the grace of God.  The various Christian churches recognize different numbers of sacraments.  The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches have seven sacraments--baptism, confirmation, Eucharist, penance (also called confession), anointing of the sick, holy orders, and matrimony.  Most Protestant churches recognize two sacraments--baptism and Communion (also called the Lord's Supper).  Quakers do not observe outward forms, but consider all life a sacrament.  Roman Catholics believe that sacraments aid salvation.  Protestants observe sacraments in services involving many people, but most Protestants see them as signs of agreement between God and individuals.

The Eucharist, also called Holy Communion, or Lord's Supper a Christian sacrament commemorating the action of Jesus at his Last Supper with his disciples, when he gave them bread saying, “This is my body,” and wine saying, “This is my blood.” The story of the institution of the Eucharist by Jesus on the night before his Crucifixion is reported in four books of the New Testament (Matt. 26:26-28; Mark 14:22-24; Luke 22:17-20; and I Cor. 11:23-25). The letters of Paul and the Acts of the Apostles make it clear that early Christianity believed that this institution included a mandate to continue the celebration as anticipation in this life of the joys of the banquet that was to come in the Kingdom of God.

The Eucharist has formed a central rite of Christian worship. However, although the Eucharist is intended as a symbol of the unity of the church and as a means of fostering that unity, it has been a source of disunity and contention as well. All Christians would agree that it is a memorial action in which, by eating bread and drinking wine (or, for some Protestants, grape juice), the church recalls what Jesus Christ was, said, and did; they would also agree that participation in the Eucharist enhances and deepens the communion of believers not only with Christ but also with one another. The breaking of the bread and the pouring of the wine are recognized by every Christian denomination as the central symbols of the death of Jesus Christ on the Cross. Most Christian traditions teach that Jesus is present in the Eucharist in some special way, though they disagree about the mode, the locus, and the time of that presence. In short, there is more of a consensus among Christians about the meaning of the Eucharist than would appear from the confessional debates over the sacramental presence, the effects of the Eucharist, and the proper auspices under which it may be celebrated..

According to the eucharistic doctrine of Roman Catholicism, the elements of bread and wine are “transubstantiated” into the body and blood of Christ; i.e., their whole substance is converted into the whole substance of the body and blood, although the outward appearances of the elements, their “accidents,” remain. Such practices as the adoration and reservation of the Host follow from this doctrine that the whole Christ is really present in his body and blood in the forms of bread and wine. During the 19th and 20th centuries the Roman Catholic Liturgical Movement put new emphasis on the frequency of communion, on the participation of the entire congregation in the priestly service, and on the Real Presence of Christ in the church as the fundamental presupposition for the Real Presence in the Eucharist..

The Eucharistic beliefs and practices of Eastern Orthodoxy have much in common with those of Roman Catholicism, differing principally in the area of piety and liturgy rather than doctrine. The major difference includes the use of leavened rather than of unleavened bread. While Roman Catholic theology maintains that the recitation of the words of institution constitutes the Eucharist as a sacrament, Eastern theology has taught that the invocation of the Holy Spirit upon the elements (Greek epiklAsis) is part of the essential form of the Eucharist..

Among other Western Christians, those that adhere most closely to the traditions of Catholic Eucharistic doctrine and practice are the Anglicans and the Lutherans. Early Anglican theology vigorously opposed Roman Catholic teaching on the sacraments, but, from the beginning of and, especially, since the 19th century, Anglican liturgical practice has retained much of the Catholic tradition. In the 16th century, Lutheranism unequivocally affirmed the Real Presence of the body and blood of Christ “in, with, and under” the bread and wine and emphasized that the reason for the Eucharist is the remission of sins. In their liturgies both Anglicanism and Lutheranism worked within the framework of the mass, adopting certain elements and rejecting others; the liturgical movements in both traditions during the 19th and 20th centuries restored additional elements, even though the theological interpretation of the Lord's Supper continued to display great variety..

In Reformed Christianity, Huldrych Zwingli emphasized the memorial aspect of the Eucharist. John Calvin, however, taught a “real but spiritual presence” of the living Christ, but in the sacramental action rather than in the elements.

In other traditions within Protestantism the sacraments have become “ordinances,” not channels of grace but expressions of faith and obedience of the Christian community. Among Baptists the practice of “close communion” has restricted the ordinance to those who are baptized properly; i.e., as adults upon a profession of faith. The Society of Friends (Quakers) dropped the use of the Eucharist altogether in its reaction against formalism..

As a result of these variations in both doctrine and practice, the Eucharist has been a central issue in the discussions and deliberations of the ecumenical movement..

 

Baptism is a symbolic washing with water as a religious practice.  It indicates or transmits purification, the washing away of sins, and the start of a renewed life.  Baptism is most important in the Christian religion.  But many other religions include similar ceremonies. 

 

Baptism is a sacrament of admission to the Christian Church. The forms and rituals of the various churches vary, but Baptism almost invariably involves the use of water and the Trinitarian invocation, "I baptize you: In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit." The candidate may be wholly or partly immersed in water, the water may be poured over the head, or a few drops may be sprinkled or placed on the head.

Ritual immersion has traditionally played an important part in Judaism, as a symbol of purification (in the mikvah,a postmenstrual or ritual bath used by women) or as a symbol of consecration (in rituals of conversion, accompanied by special prayers). It was particularly significant in the rites of the Essenes. According to the Gospels, John the Baptist baptized Jesus. Although there is no actual account of the institution of Baptism by Jesus, the Gospel According to Matthew portrays the risen Christ issuing the "Great Commission" to his followers: "Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you" (Matt. 28:19-20). Elsewhere in the New Testament, however, this formula is not used. Some scholars thus doubt the accuracy of the quotation in Matthew and suggest that it reflects a tradition formed by a merging of the idea of spiritual baptism (as in Acts 1:5), early baptismal rites (as in Acts 8:16), and reports of Pentecostalism after such rites (as in Acts 19:5-6).

Baptism occupied a place of great importance in the Christian community of the 1st century, but Christian scholars disagree over whether it was to be regarded as essential to the new birth and to membership in the Kingdom of God or to be regarded only as an external sign or symbol of inner regeneration. The Apostle Paul likened baptismal immersion to personal sharing in the death, burial, and Resurrection of Christ (Rom. 6:3-4). By the 2nd century, the irreducible minimum for a valid Baptism appears to have been the use of water and the invocation of the Trinity. Usually the candidate was immersed three times, but there are references to pouring as well.

Most of those baptized in the early church were converts from Greco-Roman paganism and therefore were adults. Both the New Testament and the Church Fathers of the 2nd century make it clear that the gift of salvation belongs to children, however. Tertullian seems to have been the first to object to infant Baptism, suggesting that by the 2nd century it was already a common practice. It remained the accepted method of receiving members in the Eastern and Western churches, except in the case of adult converts.

During the Reformation the Lutherans, Reformed, and Anglicans accepted the Catholic attitude toward infant Baptism. The radical Reformers, however, primarily the Anabaptists, insisted that a person must be sufficiently mature to make a profession of faith before receiving Baptism. Some Christian groups that practice adult rather than infant Baptism.

Nearly all Christian churches baptize.  They follow the example of John the Baptist and the instructions of Jesus Christ and Saint Paul, as set forth in the New Testament.  Most churches consider baptism to be the main ceremony signifying a person's entry into the Christian community. 

 

In a typical Christian baptismal ceremony, the person being baptized makes a statement of faith in Jesus.  Sponsors, called godparents, may make the statement of faith on behalf of infants.  In most cases, a priest or minister then pronounces the person's name and administers the water, saying, "I baptize you in the Name of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit," or similar words.  Often, infants are christened (named) during the baptismal ceremony.  Christening also refers to baptism itself. 

 

The meaning and procedure of baptism vary among Christian churches.  For example, the Anglican, Eastern Orthodox, Lutheran, Methodist, Reformed, and Roman Catholic churches consider baptism a sacrament or ordinance.  According to these churches, baptism gives or expresses God's grace in a person, regardless of the individual's awareness of it.  As a result, they baptize infants as well as adults.  Most of these churches usually administer baptismal water by pouring or sprinkling it.  The Eastern Orthodox churches practice immersion (submerging a person into water). 

 

Baptist and similar churches believe that baptism should follow a voluntary, public statement of faith in Jesus Christ as saviour.  Therefore, they do not baptize people who are too young to realize the significance of such a statement.

Baptism is a sacrament that admits infants and converts into the church.  A priest dips the body of the person who is being baptized into the water three times.  He says, "The servant of God is baptized in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost." 

Confirmation is a religious ceremony practiced by several faiths.  In the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Lutheran churches, and in the Church of England, it is associated with baptism.  Roman Catholics believe that it confers the grace of the Holy Spirit on baptized people.  In Protestant churches, the baptized renew or affirm the promises made for them at baptism.  In Judaism, boys are confirmed at the age of 13 in a ceremony called bar mitzvah.  Some synagogues have similar ceremonies for girls called bat mitzvah.  Many also hold a confirmation exercise on Shavuot

Chrismation (or Confirmation) is administered immediately after baptism.  It grants the newly baptized person full membership of the church. 

Christian rite by which the relation between man and God established previously in baptism is said to be confirmed (or strengthened and established in faith).

During the first several centuries of Christian history, when most of those who joined the church were adult converts from paganism, the baptism of these adults and the ceremony admitting them to the full rights of membership (equivalent to, but not yet called, confirmation) probably coincided. Early Christian theologians, therefore, closely connected the meaning and effects of confirmation with those of baptism. But as the baptism of infants rather than of adults became customary, a sharper distinction between baptism and confirmation became necessary. In those Christian churches where confirmation is still observed, its connection with and its distinction from baptism influence both the practice and the theological interpretation of the rite. (Virtually all Christian churches acknowledge baptism as a sacrament.)

The Roman Catholic Church views confirmation as a sacrament instituted by Jesus Christ. It confers the gifts of the Holy Spirit (grace, strength, and courage) upon the recipient, who must be a baptized person at least seven years old. A bishop normally performs the rite, which includes the laying on of hands and anointing the forehead with chrism.

The Eastern Orthodox churches and some Eastern churches in communion with Rome permit a priest to administer confirmation. In Eastern Orthodoxy, the child generally receives the three sacraments of baptism, confirmation , and the first communion all in the same service.

After the Protestant Reformation, Anglicanism and Lutheranism retained a form of confirmation. In the Anglican Church a bishop must administer the rite. Lutheranism rejects the sacramental definition of confirmation and considers it a public profession of the faith into which the candidate was baptized as an infant. In both Anglicanism and Lutheranism, confirmation is usually preceded by instruction in the catechism.

Other Protestant bodies deny that confirmation is a sacrament and ascribe its origin at the earliest to the Apostles, but they sometimes use the term confirmation for acceptance of baptized members into full membership of the church, including the right to receive Holy Communion.

 

Confession (or Penance) is a sacrament in which a person confesses sins to God in the presence of a priest.  The priest forgives the sins in the name of God and offers the person spiritual advice. 

Marriage is the relationship between a man and a woman who have made a legal agreement to live together.  When a man and woman marry, they become husband and wife.  Marriage is also an important religious ceremony in many of the world's religions. 

 

Most couples decide to marry because they love each other and want to spend the rest of their lives together.  A man and woman who marry hope to share a special sexual relationship and a permanent romantic attraction.  But each hopes the other will always be a close friend as well.  Each also expects the other to help with many problems and to share certain responsibilities.  These responsibilities include earning a living, budgeting money, paying bills, preparing meals, and taking care of a home. 

 

Most couples who marry plan to have children and to raise them together.  A husband and wife are required by law to protect and care for their children.  Marriage thus serves as the basis of family life.

 

Many married couples find they are not happy as husband and wife.  Some marriages fail because the man and woman married when they were young and inexperienced in many ways.  People who marry before they are 18 years old are much more likely to have unsuccessful marriages than if they had waited until they were older.  A man and woman also have less of a chance of achieving a happy marriage if they marry primarily because the woman is pregnant.  And if a man and woman differ in age, ethnic origin, religion, or background, their chances of a successful marriage are reduced. 

 

Preliminaries to marriage:  In India and many other countries, most marriages are arranged by parents' deciding whom their children will marry.  But in most parts of Australia, Europe, New Zealand, and North America, nearly everyone makes his or her own decision about whom and when to marry. 

 

Before people marry, they go out with members of the opposite sex.  A man and woman who go out with each other spend a lot of time together learning to know the other person.  After they have been together for some time, they may find that they love each other and decide to become engaged.  In many cases, the man gives the woman an engagement ring as a token of their agreement to marry.  The use of a ring as an engagement token comes from the ancient custom of using a ring to seal an important agreement. 

 

Most men and women marry people they live near, or with whom they work or go to school.  Most people tend to marry individuals who are like themselves in certain ways.  For example, people of the same nationality, ethnic origin, and religion tend to marry each other.  A man and woman are more likely to marry if they have similar social and educational backgrounds. 

 

Laws concerning marriage:  A man and woman must follow certain laws when they marry.  Each country has a minimum age for marriage.  In many countries it is 18, but sometimes younger with parental consent. 

 

According to law, both the man and woman must freely consent to marry.  If a person is forced or tricked into marrying against his or her will, it may be possible to have the marriage annulled (cancelled). 

 

Close relatives are prohibited from marrying each other.  In most countries laws also forbid a person to marry if he or she is married to someone else.  A person who marries a second time while a first marriage is still in effect commits the crime of bigamy. 

 

Some legal systems permit a couple to marry even if the bride or groom cannot be present at the wedding ceremony.  However, someone must serve as a proxy (substitute) for the absent person.  This type of marriage is called marriage by proxy. 

 

In nearly all countries, a couple must have a marriage licence to marry.  A waiting period is usually required between the day a couple apply for a licence and the day they marry.  This period gives both people time to make sure they want to marry.  The waiting period developed from a church custom that requires a couple to announce their intention to marry publicly on each of the three Sundays before the wedding day.  During the time between the first announcement and the wedding, anyone who believes the couple should not marry may say so.  The announcements are called banns. 

 

If an unmarried couple live together as husband and wife, a court may presume them married after a certain period of time if there is no evidence to the contrary.  This is sometimes known as a common law marriage. 

 

Most countries have laws forbidding people of the same sex from marrying.  However, many homosexual couples establish long-term relationships that are similar to marriage and consider themselves married. 

 

Wedding ceremonies and customs:  Most wedding ceremonies involve two requirements.  First, the man and woman must say that they want to become husband and wife.  Second, the ceremony must have witnesses, including the official who marries the couple.  If the couples have a religious ceremony, it is conducted by a minister, priest, or rabbi.  If couples are married in a civil (nonreligious) ceremony, an authorized official performs it.  During the days of long sea voyages, the captain of a ship was authorized to conduct a marriage ceremony while the ship was at sea. 

 

Many couples prefer a traditional religious ceremony, though some people depart from custom.  A traditional Christian marriage ceremony begins with the groom and a male companion, known as the best man, entering and waiting for the bride at the altar.  The bride then walks down the aisle with her father, another male relative, or a family friend, followed by her bridesmaids.  She wears a white dress and veil and carries a bouquet.  At the altar, the bride and groom exchange marriage vows and accept each other as husband and wife.  The groom puts a wedding ring on the ring finger of the bride's left hand, and the bride may also give the groom a ring.  After the ceremony, the bride and groom leave down the main aisle followed by their attendants. 

 

People of many backgrounds follow the traditional wedding ceremony, but certain religious groups add their own features to it.  For example, different Protestant groups have their own versions of the ceremony.  Many Roman Catholic weddings take place during a Mass, and the bride and groom receive Holy Communion.  Marriage is a sacrament (important religious ceremony) in the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches. 

 

Most Jewish weddings are held under a special canopy that represents the couple's future home.  At the end of the ceremony, an empty glass or other breakable object is placed on the floor and the groom breaks it with his foot.  This act symbolizes the destruction of the ancient Jewish Temple in Jerusalem and reminds the couple that a marriage can also break if it is not protected. 

 

Mormon weddings are held privately in Mormon temples.  Only church members in good standing can attend these ceremonies.  Mormons believe that marriage and family life continue after death. 

 

A Quaker man and woman marry at a public gathering where they declare their commitment to each other.  Quakers believe that God makes a couple husband and wife, and so a minister or other official is not required. 

 

In a Hindu ceremony, the bride, groom, and guests assemble at the bride's house.  They dress in richly decorated clothes, and the bride's sari (a traditional dress made from a long piece of cloth wrapped around the body) is usually red.  She may also wear much gold jewellery, including heavy earrings and a nose ring.  Astrologers choose a favorable day for the wedding.  The bridegroom makes offerings before a sacred fire, and the sacramental part of the rites begin.  Each item of ritual is accompanied by hymns.  The bridegroom takes the bride's hands and asks her to be his wife.  The bride offers a sacrifice of fried grain.  The priest ties their garments together, and the bridegroom leads the bride around the sacred fire three times.  The bridegroom then leads her in the most important rite, the seven steps.  At each step the couples recite a prayer together.  After the seventh step, the marriage is complete.  Afterward, the couples stand at night to see certain stars and constellations.  This ceremony impresses upon them the pattern of the universe in which they are marrying. 

 

Muslim weddings are not religious ceremonies, though religious rites are sometimes included.  Ceremonial preparations take place before the wedding, often on the preceding day.  Both bride and groom have a ceremonial bath.  The bride dresses her hair, stains the palms of her hands and the soles of her feet with henna, and darkens her eyes.  The henna is usually painted on in an intricate lace-like pattern which may take several hours to complete.  The bride's guardian gives the bride away to her husband.  The marriage contract is signed before the imam (leader of the prayers) or some other official.  He recites a prayer while holding together the hands of the bride and groom so that their thumbs touch.  The guests then recite aloud the opening chapter of the Quran.  After the marriage ceremony, the walima (wedding feast) is held.  When the feasting is over, the bride is conducted to her husband's home. 

 

Changing attitudes about marriage:  Almost every society has certain traditional ideas about marriage.  Traditionally, the husband was expected to earn a living and the wife was expected to do the housework and look after the children.  Many people now disregard traditional marriage patterns.  An increasing number of married women have paying jobs and help support their families.  More and more husbands share responsibilities traditionally handled by women.  Such responsibilities include cooking, doing housework, and caring for the children.  For some couples the traditional roles are reversed: the wife has a full-time well-paid job and the husband stays at home and cares for the children. 

 

Marriage in other cultures:  In most countries, one man marries one woman and they stay married unless one of them dies or they are divorced.  This system of marriage is called monogamy.  Some societies permit polygamy, in which a man has more than one wife, or a woman has more than one husband.  The marriage of a man to more than one woman is called polygyny and is practiced in some African and Middle Eastern cultures.  Islamic law permits a man to have as many as four wives if he can afford to support them all adequately.  Some societies practice polyandry, the marriage of a woman to more than one man. 

 

In certain cultures, marriage involves a gift from the family of the bride or groom to the other's family.  In many societies, for example, the bride's family gives money or property to the groom or his family.  Such a gift is called a dowry.  In some cases, the dowry is given to the bride so that she and her husband may benefit from it.  In other cultures, the groom and his family present gifts to the family of the bride.  This offering is called a bride price. 

 

Some societies require a person to marry someone who belongs to his or her own tribe or group.  This custom is called endogamy.  In other places, an individual must follow the rules of exogamy and marry a person from another tribe or village.  The most common rule of exogamy requires a man or woman to marry someone outside his or her own family. 

 

Each culture has its own rules about which family members a person is forbidden to marry.  However, most societies forbid incest, which is marriage or sexual relations between certain close relatives.  In nearly all cultures, such relatives include a parent and child or a brother and sister.

Marriage joins man and woman as husband and wife and forms a family. 

 

Holy orders admit men to the major and minor orders of the clergy.  Only a bishop can ordain.  The congregation gives its consent to those taking holy orders by saying axios (he is worthy) during the service.

Communion, in Christian churches, is the sacrament (holy ceremony) of the Lord's Supper.  The Gospels and I Corinthians report that at the Last Supper, Jesus told His disciples to eat, for this was His body, and to drink, for this was His blood.  Many Protestants call the sacrament the Lord's Supper.  Anglicans, Roman Catholics, and members of the Eastern Orthodox churches call the ceremony the Eucharist or Holy Communion.  Some Protestant churches observe the ritual monthly or weekly.  Others observe it four times a year.  Roman Catholics must receive Communion during the Easter season, and often they receive weekly or daily Communion. 

 

Some churches use individual wafers of unleavened bread and, especially among Protestant churches, individual glasses of wine.  The modern liturgical movement has proposed celebrating the sacrament more frequently.  It also proposes using a shared loaf of bread and a common cup of wine. 

Anointing of the sick is a sacrament of the Roman Catholic Church and of Eastern Orthodox churches.  A priest administers the sacrament to a person who is aged, seriously ill, or in danger of death from sickness or an accident.  The sacrament may also be administered to a group, such as patients in a hospital.  In the Roman Catholic Church, the sacrament was formerly called extreme unction.  In administering the sacrament, the priest anoints a person's hands and forehead with holy oil.  At the same time, prayers are said for the person's spiritual and physical healing.  The prayers are based on the Epistle of James (5:13-15).

Anointing of the sick is a sacrament in which a priest anoints a sick person and prays for forgiveness of the person's sins and for his or her recovery. 

 

Church buildings:  Orthodox churches are richly decorated with religious art.  Icons (holy images) form an essential part of Orthodox worship.  They stimulate the faith and piety of the worshippers. 

 

In each church an altar stands in the centre of the sanctuary.  A solid screen or partition, called an iconostasis, divides the sanctuary from the rest of the church.  The congregation looks into the sanctuary through doorways in the iconostasis.

 

Icon is a religious painting considered sacred in the Eastern Orthodox Churches.  Most icons are portraits of God, Jesus Christ, or saints.  They are painted according to rules established by church authorities and are intended to convey the heavenly glory of the holy subjects portrayed.  Thus, icons appear stylized.  They lack shadows, and figures may seem stiff and posed.  Icons are displayed in homes and in churches, especially on the iconostasis, a screen that stands between the sanctuary and the congregation.  Worshippers show devotion by praying before icons, kissing them, or lighting candles.

 

Nicene Councils were two councils of the Christian church held in Nicaea (Nice), in what is now northwest Turkey. 

 

The first council was called in 325 by Emperor Constantine to settle the dispute caused by the Arian views of the Trinity.  Arius was a priest of Alexandria who believed that Christ is not of the same essence as God.  The council adopted the so-called Nicene Creed.  This declared that God and Christ as God are of the same essence.  The council also fixed the time for observing Easter.  In some regions, the Christian Easter had been observed on the same day as the Jewish Passover.  In other religions, it had been observed on the following Sunday. 

 

The Nicene Creed summarized the chief articles of the Christian faith of that time.  It is next oldest to the Apostles' Creed.  It was adopted originally in the following form, but has been amplified since:

 

We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, maker of all things, both visible and invisible; and in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the Son of God, Only begotten of the Father, that is to say, of the substance of the Father, God of God and Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father, by whom all things were made, both things in heaven and things on earth; who, for us men and for our salvation, came down and was made flesh, was made man, suffered, and rose again on the third day, went up into the heavens, and is to come again to judge both the quick and the dead; and in the Holy Ghost. 

 

The second council was called in 787 by the Empress Irene and her son Constantine.  The Emperor Leo, Irene's deceased husband, had forbidden the use of images for any purpose.  The council was called because of opposition to the decree.  The empress revoked the decree after the council had laid down principles governing the veneration of images.

 

Trinity is a term used to express the belief that in the one God there are three Divine Persons--the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit (or Holy Ghost).  The idea is based on various passages in the New Testament.  Belief in Father, Son, and Holy Spirit was defined by early general councils of the Christian church.  The Council of Nicaea in 325 and the Council of Constantinople in 381 declared that the Son is of the same essence as the Father, and that the three Persons are one God.  The East and West branches of the church later disagreed as to how the Holy Spirit proceeds from the other Divine Persons.  The Eastern Church held that the Son comes from the Father, and that the Spirit comes from the Father through the Son.  The Western Church held that the Spirit comes from Father and Son together.  A special activity has been ascribed to each of the Persons.  The Father creates, the Son became human, and the Spirit makes holy.

 

 

Mass is the name used by several Christian churches for the celebration of the sacrament of the Eucharist, or Lord's Supper.  In this important ritual, the worshipping community gathers to give thanks and praise to God and to participate in the ongoing mystery of the death and Resurrection of Jesus Christ.  This celebration is called the Mass by Roman Catholics, and by some Episcopal and Lutheran churches.  The Eastern Orthodox service known as the Divine Liturgy is similar to the Mass.  Other Christians celebrate it in similar rituals. 

 

The Mass has two major parts.  The first part is a service that includes readings taken from Scripture and a sermon.  The second part is a Eucharistic rite of prayer focusing on a remembrance of the Last Supper, the basis of the sacrament of Holy Communion. Worshippers sing hymns and say prayers during the Mass. 

 

The Eucharist was instituted by Jesus, who shared bread and wine with His disciples at the Last Supper.  Most Christians believe that Jesus intended His words and actions during the Last Supper to be continued in a sacramental ritual.  They base their belief upon accounts in the Bible of the Last Supper in the Gospels and 1 Corinthians in the New Testament.  The word Mass comes from the Latin word mittere, meaning "to send."  People who had gathered to celebrate the Lord's Supper or the "breaking of the bread" were then sent forth to practice what they had celebrated.