 |
|
The
Early Church
1 . Introduction
During the period of AD 96-200
the Church had to face two serious threats. Those were heresies and
persecutions. In the last lesson we studied how the fathers preserved the
faith of the Church against heresies. Here we shall study how they
witnessed the faith at the face of persecutions. The Church during the
period underwent two major persecutions promulgated by emperors Trajan and
Marcus Aurelius. A large number of believers witnessed the Lord through
their martyrdom. Their life and death strengthened the faith of their
fellow brethren and made the Church grow. Of them the life and death of
four great Fathers of the period are important. They are Clement of Rome,
Ignatius of Antioch, Polycarp of Smyrna and Irenaeus of Lyons.
2 . Clement of Rome
Clement, the third bishop of
Rome flourished around 96 AD. He was a disciple of both Peter and Paul.
Paul refers to him in his letter to Philippians (4:3) as one of his fellow
workers. His first and second epistles to the Corinthians are included in
the Orthodox Canon of the Bible. The first was widely known and read in
the early Church One of the contributions of this book to the present day
Church is that it refers to the threefold hierarchy of the Church: the
bishop (Episcopos) the priest (Presbyteros) and the deacon (Diakonos).
Again, the book bears the same character and flavor of any other book of
the New Testament He was drowned in the waters of the Black Sea at the
time of emperor Trajan in about AD 100.
3 .
Ignatius of Antioch (Ca. 35-107 AD)
He was the third bishop of
Antioch and the first was St. Peter himself. He was a disciple of Peter,
Paul, John and other Apostles who were in Antioch. He had another name
Theophorus which has two meanings, "God-bearer" and "God-borne".
The second meaning is derived
from the tradition that Ignatius when he was a small child was carried in
the hands of Jesus (Mk. 9:36). He was martyred during the reign of emperor
Trajan. To carry out the execution, he was taken to Rome under a guard of
ten soldiers. On his way he passed through Laodicea, Philadelphia, Sardis
and Smyrna and, for him it was an opportunity to meet the believers in
those places and to strengthen them. At Smyrna ,the representatives of the
Churches of Tralles, Magnesia and Ephesus came out to meet him. He
encouraged them and their churches to be steadfast in their faith.
Ignatius himself did not fear death. The way he saw and faced his
martyrdom made the deepest impression on the believers. When he writes to
the Church Rome from Smyrna on his way to Rome, he says:
This favor only I beg of you: suffering to be a libation poured out
to God, while there is still an altar ready for me . Again, he
writes in the same Epistle:
Pray leave me to be a meal for the beasts for it is they who can
provide my way to God. I am His wheat, ground fine by the lion's teeth to
be made purest bread for Christ .
In Rome he was thrown to wild
beasts in 107 Al). And thus lgnatius won the crown of martyrdom.
4 .
Polycarp of Smyrna (Ca. 69-155 A.D.)
He was born to Christian
parents in Asia. As Irenaeus, his disciple records, the young Polycarp had
been instructed by Apostles and had familiar intercourse with many who had
seen Christ. In particular he was the disciple of John who spent his last
years in Ephesus. From John he received his appointment to the bishopric
of Smyrna. He was martyred at the age of 86 in AD 155 for his reluctance
to deny the faith. We have detailed account of his martyrdom by an
eyewitness called Marcian of the Church of Smyrna. When the policemen came
to his house to arrest him, though it was late in the night he arranged
for them food and drink. The Governor who was in charge of his execution
persuaded him to swear by the name of Caesar. But he did not yield, to
that. As the Governor went on pressing him, he replied
Eighty and six years have l served Him, and He has done me no
wrong. How then Can I blaspheme my King and my Savior ?
He was laid on the pyre to be
burnt alive. But a wind blew the fire into a great vault around his body.
Then they brought an executioner who stabbed and killed him with a dagger.
Then his body was burnt. The steadfastness of his faith and his love for
the Lord was a model for the martyrs and it deepened the faith of the
believers. A number of other believers too were martyred during this
period.
Marcus Aurelius became the
emperor of Rome in AD 161. He began persecuting Christians. It was
extended to all parts of his Empire, in Rome, in Asia Minor, in Gaul
(France) and in Africa. I[l Rome Justin, known as 3ustin Martyr together
with his companions was put to death in AD 165.
5 . The Martyrs of
Lyons
Another notable group of
martyrdom took place at Lyons in AD 177. Marcus Aurelius the Emperor of
Rome launched a fierce persecution. The Christians were sought and
tortured. of the many stories of persecution the martyrdom of Blandina, a
slave girl was of the severest kind. She was constantly subjected to
unspeakable tortures. Then she was hung on a cross for wild beasts to
tear, but they did not touch her. She was enclosed in a net and exposed to
a bull, and tossed till she was dead. The body was not allowed to be
buried, but was exhibited to the mockery of the crowd for six days and
then burnt and flung into the river.
6 .
Irenaeus of Lyons (AD 13O-2OO)
Irenaeus was a native of Smyrna
and was a disciple of the great martyr - bishop Polycarp. He left Asia for
Rome and Lyons. He evangelized Gaul (i.e. modern France) and later became
the bishop of Lyons. Irenaeus stood as a link between the fathers who were
associated with the Apostles and the believers of the later generation.
The church of the second century found a great theologian in Irenaeus.
During his time there were several heretics who laid down new doctrines
and claimed Apostolic succession. Irenaeus refuted the heresies by
explaining what the Apostolic tradition was. He said that Every tradition
should be checked with what had been handed down from generation to
generation in the churches which the Apostles themselves established.
There were so many Churches founded by the Apostles They kept an unbroken
line of succession from the Apostles through the bishops. So every
teaching should conform to the tradition found in those churches. Again
tradition should also agree with the four Gospels. All the early heretics
used the Bible in one form or other to suit their opinions. The tradition
of Christian truth can be found in its fullness only in the church. No one
can simply take the Bible and sit down and construct a faith from it.
Irenaeus died in Ca. 200 AD
We have looked into the life
and death of the four great Fathers of the period and of some other
martyrs of the time. These all offered themselves as sacrifice for the
Lord. Neither tortures nor death did separate them from the love of Christ
Their steadfastness and fearlessness even at the face of death made their
fellow brethren confirmed in their faith and moved many others to
conversion.
7 .
For Memorization:
Seeing then that we have this hope, let us knit fast our souls to
Him who is ever true to His word and lefteous in his judgments. (Clement
of Rome, First Epistle to Corinthians, Para27) Questions and Activities:
1. Read 2 Tim. 4, Note down how the Apostles and Apostolic Fathers faced
death, and how they perceived death. 2. Martyrdom is a sacrifice offered
to the Father; Prove this statement in the light of this lesson.
1 . Persecutions
During the period from AD 200-323 the
Church underwent three major persecutions in three decades. The first
decade of persecution began by the dawn of the third century and ended
in 210 AD The second decade of persecution was from AD 250-260. And
the third decade of persecution was brought to a close in AD 313.
By the beginning of the third century the
Christian church was a reality to be reckoned with the Roman Empire.
The Roman authorities began to persecute Christians due to their
increasing prominence. They became prominent in three ways: (1) Many
people were converted into Christianity and they increased in number.
(2) The conversions took place in different parts of Roman Empire and
thus the Christians were present in almost every part of the Empire.
(3) Though comparatively small in number they were a group of people
zealous for their faith and the Church was a close-knit organization.
The Roman authorities feared the Christian Church that its power would
be a source of danger to the State.
Septimius Severus ruled Rome from AD 193
to21 1.He wanted to check the progress of the Christians ~He issued an
edict and it was the first official persecution by edic~ It aimed
exclusively at converts. It made conversions illegal. The persecution
was sharpest in Egypt and Africa. In Alexandria in Egypt, Leonides,
Origen's father was beheaded and several of Origen's pupils were
destroyed. In Carthage of Africa many Christians especially the newly
baptized died under tortures. Many were burned at stake and many
others were thrown to wild animals. After the death of Severus in 211,
till the accession of Decius in 249 the Christian church was in peace.
The second decade of persecution began with the edict of Emperor
Decius in AD.250. It was ordered that all might make their profession
of faith within a fixed date. All who failed to declare paganism were
liable to persecution. People were asked to make offering in the
temple and partake in the sacrificial meal. Those who made the
offering were given a certificate. If anyone denied he was to be
induced in every way to change his mind and if he remained obstinate
was to be tortured and imprisoned until he apostatized. Decius did not
want to make martyrs but apostates because he knew the martyrdom
strengthened the Church whereas apostasy weakened it. Even then there
were martyrs. In Rome Bishop Fabian had been martyred. Decius died in
AD 251.
After Decius, Gallus became the Emperor
(251-253). He resumed the persecution in milder form. Emperor Valerian
who was next to occupy the throne (253-260) revived the Decian
persecution. In the first half of his reign, he favored Christians.
But in 257 he started persecuting the Church. He did not try to
destroy Christian religion. But he planned to deprive the Church of
all its strength. For that he aimed at its hierarchy, worship and
property. He issued an edict in 257 which deposed bishops from their
sees, forbade assemblies for worship and all access to cemeteries and
confiscated properties. In Africa St. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage was
beheaded. Many great leaders lost their lives during his reign.
The Church had peace for another forty
years. Then the last an greatest of persecutions broke out in the
region of Emperor Diocletian in AD 303. It continued under Galerius
and Maximian for a decade till it finally ended in AD 313. Diocletian
forbade meetings of worship commanded Churches to be leveled to the
ground and Scriptures to be destroyed in fire, and ordered the Church
officials to be deprived of their rank. More than his predecessors he
succeeded in abstaining from bloodshed. He forced Christians to hand
over the Scriptures an apostatize their faith through long
imprisonment and torture. In 30 Diocletian resigned Galerius and
Maximian who occupied the throne successively continued the
persecution. Galerius died in AD 311 and Maximian in AD 313. By the
initiative of Constantine the Christians were declared free through
the Edict in AD 313. There ended the era of persecution.
2 . The Teachers
of Antioch and Alexandria
3 . Formation of
the Bible
Another important development during the
period from AD 21 to 325 was the formation of the Bible. The Bible is
a collection of many books. The collection as we have today, tells us
along story of selection and limitation. The Church in the early years
after the Apostles was aware of three authorities: the Scriptures, the
spoken word of Christ and the oral testimony of the Apostles. For them
any reference to scriptures meant only the Old Testament. In course of
time the works and words of Christ recorded by the Apostles i.e. the
Gospels were circulated among them. Gradually they began to assume
prominence and were put on the same level with the Scriptures of the
Old Testament. There were a good number of books circulated among the
Christians which claimed Apostolic authority. So the church had to
cautiously select and make a Canon of books (body of writings which
are accepted as genuine, authoritative, and inspired by God) of the
New Testament. This process of collection and canonization of the
books of the New Testament was speeded up by several factors.
-
First among the factors that speeded up the
formation of the New Testament Bible, was the Christian worship. In
the Christian services it was customary, after the lessons from the
Old Testament, to read any Apostolic letter. For example l
Thessalonians was to be
read to all the brethren (1 Thess. 5:27). After the
Epistle to the Colossian had been read among them they were to hand
over it to the Church of Laodicea and in turn receive another letter
from Laodicea (Col.4: 16) The Epistles of Paul were widely
circulated among the early Christian Churches. The first Epistle to
Corinthians written by Clement of Rome (AD 100) was read in the
Corinthian Church and was widely known in early church especially in
the east. This book is included in the Orthodox Canon of the New
Testament. But it is not found in the version of the Bible we
commonly use today.
Another cause that led to the formation of a
Canon of the Christian Scriptures was the growth of Christian
literature. Christian writers used familiar words and phrases of the
Apostolic writers and in some cases quoted them. This enhanced the
canonization and made the process easier.
Thirdly, in the middle of the second century a
Gnostic heretic called Marcion drew up his own list of sacred books.
In the list he excluded the whole of Old Testament and accepted only
a mutilated version of Luke and then of the Pauline epistles. The
Church soon found it necessary to make a Canon of the New Testament.
In the second century different versions of the
New Testament books were made in different languages. Syriac version
was circulated in Syria, and Latin version in Africa. In the end of
the third century and the beginning of the fourth century there
produced a version in Sahidic dialect in upper Egypt. Those books so
published formed the Canon of the New Testament in those regions.
The effort to fix the Canon was not
coordinated. It differed from place to place. A Canon of the New
Testament called the Muratorian Canon (l80-190) compiled in Italy was
the earliest ecclesiastical list of the New Testament books. It listed
22 books. Irenaeus accepted 21 books as Canonical. Hippolytus of Rome
(AD 235), a disciple of Irenaeus had 21 books of the New Testament in
his list excluding Hebrews. The Syrian Canon had only 22 books
excluding Revelations, 2 Peter, 2 John and Jude. Tertullian (200 AD),
a Father of the African Church was the first one to use the, phrase
"New Testament". In Alexandria, Athanasius (367) gave a list of 27
books, the same as we see in the common version of the Bible.
-
Thus the Canon of the New Testament came to
be fixed by the different churches.
The
Church During Nicea
-
1 . Emperor
Constantine
The Edict of Milan issued in A.D. 313 freed the
Church from persecution. It was the work of two Emperors, Constantine and
Licinius who were then ruling the two parts of the vast Roman Empire, and the
main influence behind it was that of Constantine. They met at Milan (North
Italy) and promulgated the famous Edict. Constantine was sympathetic towards
Christians. According to Eusebius, the fourth century Church historian,
Constantine was aware of the fact that all the Kings who persecuted Christians
met with tragic end. But he had been successful in his career as a King. In
this state of mind, as Eusebius tells us, he prayed God to enlighten his mind
by some marvelous sign. His prayer was granted and he saw a Cross of light in
the sky with the words "by this conquer".
Constantine did all that he could to strengthen the
Church. When divisions arose he tried to unify the Church. He brought many
reforms by means of legislation, which were favorable for the Christians. He
declared Sunday as a holiday and a day of rest. Christian clergy were exempted
from civil burdens and taxes. Constantine professed himself as a follower of
Christ, but he refrained from Baptism for fear that he might sin after
Baptism. He desired Christianity to be the one religion of his Empire.
The freedom the Church thus gained was both a boon
and a bane. It was a boon that the Church had remarkable growth in many ways.
It was a bane that the Church had to face two dangers. First of all freedom
gave rise to heresies which made internal conflicts and ultimately to a
certain extent lost its authority to be a witness of Christ. Secondly it
degraded the quality of Christian living. But the Fathers safeguarded the
Church in two ways, the Councils and monasticism. The Fathers came together in
Councils and pronounced the faith of the Church. The great monks kept up the
standard of Christian living by discipline and prayer.
2 . Athanasius, Arius,
and the Council of Nicea
Athanasius was born in Ca. A.D. 296 of Greek
parents in Alexandria. He was probably educated at the Catechetical School in
his native city. When he was a boy bishop Alexander of Alexandria brought him
to his house. Later the Archbishop ordained him deacon and young deacon
attended the Council of Nicea (325) as Bishop Alexander's secretary. In 328
when Alexander died he became the Archbishop of Alexandria. He showed his
ability and clear grasp of Christian principles by writing at the age of
twenty one, his celebrated work "The Incarnation". He throughout his life
fought relentlessly against the Arian heresy. Because of his opposition to
Arianism he was exiled at least four times from Alexandria. His "Life of St.
Antony" is one of the classics of monastic literature. He died at Alexandria
in 373 A.D.
Arius was the presbyter of an important church in
Alexandria. He was an ascetic and a good speaker. In 319 Alexander, Archbishop
Alexandria came to know of his erroneous teaching about the Son God. He taught
that God alone is eternal, therefore the Son cannot be eternal. God alone is
uncreated: so the Son is created. The essence God is God's alone, the Son
cannot be of God's essence. Since the Son is created, there was a time when
the Son was not. Bishop Alexander summoned him and discussed these views in
private. But that was not fruitful. So he summoned a Synod of the bishops of
Egypt and Libya. About a hundred bishops met at Alexandria. They
excommunicated Arius and his followers. Gradually the conflict spread to a
wider circle. The controversy became a subject matter of conversation even in
the streets.
Emperor Constantine was grieved to hear the new
division in the Church. He sent Bishop Hosius of Cordova (in Spain) his
counselor, Bishop Alexander and Arius to get them reconciled. But his embassy
failed. Constantine summoned the great Council of Nicea, the first Ecumenical
or Universal Council of the Church to settle the matter.
318 bishops came together at the Council. Only the
bishops had the left to vote. But the presbyters and deacons who came with
the bishops, could be present and speak in the Council. Deacon Athanasius with
his bishop Alexander took the most prominent part in the discussion. The
Council of Nicea was notable for its representative character. Bishops from
the Churches in the East were far greater in number than those from the West.
Among the participants there was John from Persia who bore the title
Metropolitan of India . Bishop Hosius of Cordova presided over
the Council.
The Fathers of the Council formed a Creed which
explains well the Person of Christ. The Creed begins with "I believe in one
God, the Father Almighty...". It contains the famous phrase 'homoousios' which
means 'of the same substance'. The Son is of the same substance
(consubstantial) with the Father.
The Arian controversy was on the scene for a few
decades with all its miserable intrigues, conflicts and quarrels. What
Athanasius and the Fathers fought for was not for a philosophical phrase,
though it is correct to say so,'but to safeguard the mystery of Incarnation:
God became man and the God incarnate is the second person of the Holy Trinity:
He is true God of true God. This mystery of faith cannot be understood through
sheer logic. But faith in its simplicity and devotion can discern the truth of
the Incarnation.
For the devout Christians of the first centuries
the persecutions were opportunities for sacrificing themselves holy and
acceptable to Lord. But in the changed circumstances of freedom, the earnest
Christians embraced a new way of life, Monasticism. There were two factors
that influenced them to adopt this new way. First, at the time of persecution
many Christians fled to the deserts of Egypt and many of them remained there
as hermits even after the restoration of peace. Next due to freedom
worldliness increased in the Church. The earnest Christians found the way of
the hermits appropriate to keep up quality of Christian life and as a good
substitute to gain the glory martyrdom.
2 . St. Antony (A.D.
251-356)
St. Antony was the first important Christian hermit
mentioned in history. He was born in A.D. 251. At the age of twenty he lost
parents. On one Sunday when he was participating in the Holy Eucharist as
usual, the day's Gospel lesson attracted him. The words of Jesus to the rich
man "If you would be perfect, go, sell what you possess and g to the poor, and
you will have treasure in heaven; and come, follow me (Mt. 19:21), inspired
him. He gave away his possessions and became a monk. We may sum up here the
important stages in his life.
Antony shifted his residence to a humble cottage. He earned money for
himself and for the needy, by making ropes, mats, baskets and sandals. This
job suited his life to practice unceasing prayer. He attended Church worship
persistently and heard the readings of Scriptures carefully. Though he was
illiterate he learned the principles of Christian living through participation
in the full cycle of Church worship.
He visited the older Christian devotees. He gathered from those many
examples the diverse ingredients of Christian perfection.
The earnest prayer of young Antony was for purity of heart. He found the
evil and its temptations powerful in his thoughts and imaginations. Through
constant prayer and discipline he could cast out the temptations from his
heart.
The demons thus cast out from within began to attack from outside. The next
stage of his life was fighting against the demons. He went to the tombs of his
village, entered into one of them and shut himself in and started praying. At
last he emerged victorious over the demons.
At the age of thirty five he crossed Nile and reached the desert. He shut
himself there in a deserted fort and lived in solitude for twenty years. Twice
a year he was supplied with bread. After twenty years when his friends broke
down the gate of the fort he came out
on from some inmost shrine, initiate into the mysteries and God-borne
(Life of Antony chapter 14). Despite his combat with demons and severe
fasting, physically and indisposition of soul he was "all balanced, as
governed by reason and standing in his natural condition" Life of Antony Ch.
14).
Antony then entered into another stage possessing spiritual powers. He began
to heal the sick, cast out demons and to comfort the sorrowful. At the time of
persecution of Diocletian and Maximian he came out of the monastery and
visited Alexandria several times to strengthen the suffering Church. He
exposed himself for arrest but authorities feared to touch him.
As the persecution was ended he lost his quietness due to visitors and
disciples. So he withdrew to an inaccessible place called
InnerMountain where he lived for the rest of his life. During
this period too he came to Alexandria to comfort Athanasius and the Church
when they suffered at the hands of the Arians. He died at the age of 105.
3 . St.
Basil
St. Basil was born in Caesarea, the capital of
Cappadocia in Asia (present day Turkey). His was a remarkable family. His
father the elder Basil had five sons and five daughters. Three of the sons
became bishops, Mar Baselius in Caesarea, Mar Gregorios in Nyssa and Mar
Pathrose in Sebaste. The eldest sister of Mar Baselius, St. Makrina was a
saint and scholar, the founder of monastic communities for women. She was also
the teacher of her brothers. Mar Baselius had his education in his native
Caesarea, then in Constantinople and finally in Athens. In Athens he renewed
his companionship with Mar Gregorios of Nazianzus who was also a native of
Cappadocia. On his return from Athens he was found vane and proud. But Makrina
taught him wisdom and turned him to Christian piety. He then traveled in
Egypt, Syria, Palestine Mesopotamia to learn from the many monks who lived in
those parts. When he returned, he distributed his wealth among the poor and
went to solitude for prayer and fasting. The community grew and it became a
great spiritual center of Christianity in Asia. In a short time he founded
other monasteries. His sister Makrina started a convent for women. They
established hospitals for the sick, nursing homes for lepers, homes for the
poor, hostels for travelers and strangers. The monasteries became spiritual
centers where the poor and the destitute praised God for His wonderful ways.
In AD 368 there was a great famine. He organized relief work, raised large
subscriptions, fed the poor himself and washed their feet. And his services
during the period can never be forgotten.
St. Basil was a great monk. Pachomius, another
great monk of fourth century had already introduced community life for monks
in Egypt. But St. Basil could integrate monastic community life into Church
life. He laid down the basic principles of community monasticism, a balance
between prayer, study and work and the need to serve ones fellow men by
working with one's own hands. He lived in simplicity and poverty. He died at
the age of fifty on Jan 1, 379.
4 . St. Ephrem the
Syrian (Ca. 306-378)
He was born to Gentile parents in Nisibis in
Mesopotamia and his father was a heathen priest. His father expelled the boy
Ephrem from home for talking to a Christian. The boy met Bishop Jacob of
Nisibis. The Bishop took him and admitted him as a Catechumen. Ephrem proved
himself a diligent disciple, in fasting and prayer and in daily attendance at
the teaching of the Scriptures. Ephrem got an opportunity to attend the Holy
Synod of Nicea (325) with bishop Jacob of Nisibis.
At the time of persecution he moved to Edessa.
There he lived solitary in one of the caves of the Mount of Edessa, a rocky
range of hills. There he spent his time in prayer, fasting and study of the
Scriptures. During this time he wrote a commentary of the book of Genesis
which showed his exegetical power. Impressed by the book the teachers and
priests of the city invited him to join the School of Edessa as a teacher. But
he fled from their access. Then directed by a divine vision he returned and
joined the School. He again had to withdraw to the Mount. There many joined
him as disciples and he taught them.
Ephrem decided to visit the famous teacher and monk
Mar Baselius. He made his way to Caesarea through Egypt. He stayed with Basil
for a fortnight Basil, during the time ordained him deacon. After that he
returned to Edessa.
St. Ephrem became famous for the austerity and
sanctity of his life as well as for his learning. He was a voluminous writer
and he wrote most of his works in verse. His literary works include the cycles
of hymns of the great feasts of the Church and about Mary, the Mother of God.
The Syrian Liturgy uses his poems to a considerable extent.
-
Early
Church and Heresies
1 .
Introduction
All the Apostles except John died as Martyrs.
John died a natural death in AD 96. The word "martyr" comes from the
Greek word, 'martyres' which means one who bears witness. The Apostles
as well as many believers bore witness to Jesus Christ, through
persecutions and martyrdom. The first three centuries of the Christian
era were ages of persecution and martyrdom for the Christian Church. The
more it was persecuted the more it flourished The steadfastness and
integrity of a martyr moved several others to conversion and
confirmation in faith. In AD 313 when the Roman Emperor Constantine
issued an edict, the persecution was stopped and Christianity was
accepted as a state religion.
In the beginning of the Christian Church all
the opposition it met with was from the Jews. Judaism was a lawful
religion in the Roman Empire and the Romans did not distinguish the
Christians from the Jews (Read Acts. 18:12-17,25:6-12). At times they
interfered either to protect the Christians from the Jews or to
persecute them being instigated by the Jews. With the spread of the
Church among the Gentiles and with the enmity of the Jews, the identity
of the Church as a new group, distinct from Judaism, became more and
more manifest The Roman authorities began to treat Christianity as an
unlawful religion.
During the Apostolic period (AD 60-96) the
Church faced two major persecutions at the hands of the Roman Emperors,
Nero (AD 54-68) and Domitian (AD 81-96). In AD 64 a great fire
devastated Rome. It was said that the Emperor Nero himself had set the
city on fire. He tried to escape the accusation by putting the blame on
Christians. Nero persecuted and killed many believers. It was in this
persecution that St. Paul was murdered by sword and St. Peter was
crucified.
Emperor Domitian who ruled Roman Empire from
AD 81 to 96 considered himself divine. He demanded that people should
worship him. Those who refused were persecuted and killed Many
Christians received martyrdom at the hands of Domitian. It was during
the end of his reign that Domitian exiled St. John to Patmos. From there
John wrote the Book of Revelation to strengthen the seven Churches of
Asia.
The Church after the death of the Apostles
continued to be persecuted by the Roman rulers. At the same time it had
to face a more serious danger, heresies. The major heresies of the
period were Docetism and Gnosticism. Even at the time of the Apostles
these heresies were operative.
The Fathers always safe-guarded the faith of
the Church. They refuted the false teachings and kept the purity of the
Gospel of Christ. There were four distinguished Fathers during the
period AD 96-200 They were Clement of Rome, Ignatius of Antioch,
Polycarp of Smyrna and Irenaeus of Lyons. The first three Fathers were
called the Apostolic Fathers. They were the contemporaries and the
disciples of the Apostles. Polycarp, the last of the Apostolic Fathers,
died in AD 155. After the Apostolic Fathers, Irenaeus of Lyons, who
flourished during the latter half of the second century, was a
distinguished Father of the period. Of these four Fathers, Ignatius
wrote much against Docetism and Irenaeus against Gnosticism.
2 . Docetism
The word 'Docetism' comes from the Greek
word 'dekeo' which means to seem. 'The adherents of 'Docetism'
argued that Jesus did not have a natural flesh during His life on
earth. It only 'seemed' to others that He was born, lived and died
in the flesh of a man. They admitted that Jesus Christ is God, but
denied His flesh.
Ignatius writes about them in his epistle
to the Smyrnaeans:
They (the Docetists) hold aloof from the Eucharist and the
common prayer, because they do not acknowledge that the Eucharist is
the flesh of our Savior Jesus Christ, who suffered for our sins, and
whom the Father in His loving kindness raised from the dead .
-
3 . Gnosticism
The word 'Gnosticism' is derived from the
Greek word 'Gnosis' which means 'knowledge'. The Gnostics formed
themselves as a group of spiritual men and claimed to have a secret
'knowledge'. According to them those who initiate into this group
and had the knowledge, were saved. During the second century
Gnosticism was a threat to the Church. Marcian who died in Ca. 160
AD was the chief exponent of Gnostic Christianity in the second
century. Against Gnostic teaching, Irenaeus declared that there was
no secret teaching or knowledge handed down in the church apart from
what the Apostles had taught. The teachings of the Apostles could be
found in the various Churches established by them. The authority of
the Church traditions were the bishops appointed by the Apostles and
their successors. He says:
Those who wish to see the truth can observe in every Church
the tradition of the Apostles made manifest in the whole world. We
can enumerate those who were appointed bishops in the Churches by
the Apostles and their successors down to our own day. (Irenaeus,
Against Heresies, 3:3)
The Fathers after the Apostles lived out
the very life of the Apostles. When we study their lives they
impress us by the fact that they kept the vision of the life in
Jesus undistorted either by persecution or by false teachings. It
was not their intellect but their clearness of conviction that
helped them to sort out erroneous teachings. The Holy Spirit guided
the Fathers' to lead the believers in the left teaching of the
Church.
-
4 . For
Memorization:
"To deny that Jesus Christ has come in the flesh is to be
Antichrist. To contradict the evidence of the Cross is to be of the
devil."
1. PRIESTHOOD IN THE EARLY CHURCH
The Acts of the Apostles and the Epistles document the fact that priestly
ministry in the early Christian Church consisted of Apostles, Prophets,
Presbyters, Evangelists, Deacons etc. Chief among these hierarchs were the
Apostles themselves. They were "called" to the ministry by the Lord (Mark
3:13) and they were the foundations of the Church. (Eph. 4:11, Rev. 21:14)
Their major commission was to proclaim the gospel of salvation of Jesus
Christ to all people. Along with this they were given the authority to heal
the sick, to raise the dead and the authority to bind and loose (Matt. 10:2,
9; 16, 19, 18:8). The Apostles respected each other and held consultation
together in running the administration of the Church. (Acts 1:15-25; 6:1-6;
15:20-24). Peter, or for that matter, any apostle, did not have any
authority over other apostles. There is no evidence to show that Jesus gave
any special authority to any one apostle which was not given to others.
The Prophets in the early Church possessed special gifts of the Holy
Spirit. (Eph. 20; 3:5; 1 Cor. 12:25, 29; 2:Pet 1:21). However with the
passage of time, false prophets appeared in large numbers and ultimately,
there were no more prophets in the Church. (This development was very much
in agreement with what St. Paul had warned against prophecy in 1 Cor. 13:8).
Deacons were elected and given special duties to perform (Acts 6:1-6).
The terms 'pastor', 'presbyter' and 'bishop' (Episcopos) have been used
interchangeably to refer to priests and bishops (Acts 15:6; 20:17, Titus
1:5; 1 Tim 4:14; James 5:14; 1 Pet. 5:1) which indicates that there existed
no strict demarcation in the very early Church. When the apostles
established Churches in various places, they chose suitable individuals and
appointed them as priests and bishops. Anyway, the three-fold ministry of
bishop, priest and deacon is clearly seen by the end of the first century.
The Epistles of Clement of Rome (80 A.D), St. Ignatius of Antioch (110 A.D)
and the early book,
"Teaching of the apostles" (Didache) 140 A.D., mention about the three
hierarchial positions. The three-fold ministry became widely prevalent in
the universal church by the 3rd century. The duties and powers of these
three positions were also specified in course of time.
1 . DIOCESAN BISHOPS
During very early days, the Gospel was preached
in important cities. Slowly Churches were established in cities; and from
cities the evangelists went to nearby places to spread the Gospel. Thus
communities of believers were formed in places around cities. These
smaller congregations were administered by the bishop of the city. Later
on, as the number of parish churches increased, all the parishes in each
region came under the supervision and administration of the bishop. Before
long, these conglomeration of parish churches formed a diocese and the
bishop became a "diocesan bishop". It was very difficult to organize and
administer dioceses before the time of Emperor Constantine, when there
were large scale persecutions. In the political sphere, it was Diocletian
who for the first time introduced the idea of dioceses as administrative
units under the empire. At about 5th century A.D, the Church in the Roman
Empire also used the 'Diocese' type of administrative units. In a way, one
can say that this was an instance of liberal copying by the Church from
the administrative set up of the state.
2 . METROPOLITAN
The general status and authority of the bishops
increased during the reign of Emperor Constantine. The bishops of the
cities with their improved status and importance received the title of
'Metropolitan'. To begin with, this appellation was given
the bishops of the metropolitan cities in the
Roman Empire. Their power and authority were similar to those of the
administrators of the empire. By the 5th century, the Church had many
bishops and also metropolitans in all major cities in the Roman Empire. In
later times these ecclesiastical hierarchs exercised civil authority as
well.
3 . PATRIARCHATES
For the sake of administrative convenience, the
empire was divided into civil provinces. The Metropolitan of the
Provincial Capital became the leader and overseer of all other
Metropolitans of the province. Thus the Metropolitans of the major cities
of the Roman Empire, ie. Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch got greater powers
than all other Metropolitans. The churches and Metropolitans in these
major cities assumed greater authority than others, due to factors like
historical significance, political importance, social status and Christian
antiquity. In earlier days, these hierarchs of the major cities were
called "Metropolitans" or "Chief Metropolitans". During the course of
time, these hierarchs were endowed with religious and secular authority
over the regions around their headquarters. The Council of Nicea (325 A.D)
approved these positions and accepted them as primates of the respective
regions. The sixth canon (decree) of the Council of Nicea reads:
let the ancient custom in Egypt, Libya and Peutapolis prevail;
that the bishop of Alexandria have jurisdiction in all these, since the
like is customary for the bishop of Rome also. Likewise in Antioch and
other provinces the Church can retain these privileges .
There is a misunderstanding in some quarters
that the Council of Nicea had established four patriarchal sees or
thrones in 325 A.D. It must be noted that the Nicene Council assembled
not to deliberate on thrones or Patriarchates, but to analyse and
condemn the Arian heresy. After deciding on the Arian controversy, there
was deliberation and resolution on the general administrative structure
that the Church should have. The sixth decree of the Council was the
result of these deliberations. There is absolutely no mention of terms
like 'Patriarch or Catholicos' for that matter in the Council decrees.
The same Council also confirmed the arrangement made in the Eastern
Church (Catholicate).
The Council of Constantinople (381 AD)
delegated the same position and authority to the bishop of
Constantinople and raised it to Metropolitanate. The third canon of this
Council says: "the bishop of Constantinople shall have precedence after
the bishop of Rome, for, his seat is the 'New Rome'".
Thus, by the end of the 4th century, there
evolved four primates within the Roman Empire. They came to be known as
Patriarchates during the fifth century.
4 . THE HISTORICAL
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PATRIARCHATES
The Council of Nicea confirmed the positions
of Primates in Rome, Alexandria and Antioch. The Council of
Constantinople (381 AD) attributed the same position to the bishop of
Constantinople ('The New Rome'). The Council of Chalcedon (451 AD)
conferred the same little to the bishop of Jerusalem. In this way, there
were five 'patriarchates' in the 5th century. During the early days of
this arrangement, Alexandria pnd Rome were considered equals. Of these,
it was the Patriarchate of Alexandria which evolved first. By the second
half of the fifth century, the bishop of Rome assumed the title "Pope".
The see of Alexandria could not develop further due to the theological
controversies and internal dissensions which raged in the 5th century.
However the See of Constantinople became more powerful with state
support; and situation led to unnecessary rivalry and tension between
Alexandria and Constantinople. The Council of Chalcedon (451 AD) was the
result of these rivalries. An immediate fallout of this Council was the
division in the Church. The Eastern Churches themselves were divided
into two - one accepting the Council and the other rejecting it.
Corresponding to these opposite positions, there were rival primates in
different Christian centres like Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem etc.
The Patriarchates are not seen standing
united since the 5th century. Just as Patriarchates evolved in the Roman
Empire, Patriarchates arose outside the Empire supported by political
and religious compulsions. patriarchates in Bulgaria (917 AD); in Serbia
(1346 A.D); the Russia (1589 AD), in Romania ((1925 AD) and Ethiopia
(1959 A.D) are important cases in point.
The term 'Patriarch' is of Greek origin and
it means 'Chief father'. It signifies the person who is the head of a
family, race or clan or a national church. Church hierarchs came to be
called by this title from the 5th century. They also assumed special
powers and responsibilities. These Patriarchs claimed that they had
authority over the bishops of their neighbourhood; and these claims were
backed by the political situations. From the sixth century onwards,
centralization of ecclesiastical authority was being stabilized. During
the middle ages, this process reached its peak. The patriarchs started
claiming that their authority extended beyond their immediate
neighbourhood, in the context of the divisions in the Church; and this
led to quarrels and dissensions. After the middle ages the vast
authority of the Patriarchs began to dwindle, mostly due to political
reasons.
5 . REASONS FOR
CENTRALIZATION OF POWERS IN PATRIARCHS
The supporters and sponsors of the
Patriarchates identify four reasons why the Patriarchates became
significant.
(a) There was a realization in the "Patriarchal regions" that the
Church there was established by the Apostles themselves or some evangelist
close to the apostles. Eg:- the claim by the Roman Church that it was
founded by apostles Peter and Paul - the claim by the Coptic Church that
the founder of their Church is St. Mark, who was the disciple of Peter and
Paul.
(b) Churches in major cities were established by the Apostles or by
their disciples. As the Church spread to the neighbouring places,
naturally, the city Churches claimed that they had authority over the
local or regional Churches in matters of faith and administration. This
claim was consciously developed with the passage of time. Besides, the
"Mother" churches in the cities claimed that the "daughter" churches came
into being as a result of the evangelistic work of city churches.
(c) In the Churches founded by Apostles, the successor - bishops had
an importance as having "Apostolic succession" and this increased their
historical significance too.
(d) The cities where these metropolitans had their headquarters had
political, geographical and cultural significance. For instance, Rome was
the capital of the Empire and the bishop of Rome assumed more powers and
status. Later he also claimed the succession of St. Peter and St. Paul and
thus more power than others. Others in some way had to acknowledge it.
Similar reasons could be identified behind the development of the
Patriarchates of Alexandria and Antioch. The Council of Constantinople
conferred the Patriarchal position to the bishop of Constantinople, mainly
due to the political importance of the city. The third canon of the
Council of Constantinople stipulates that the bishop of Constantinople
must have precedence, since the city is the 'New Rome', ie, the capital of
the Empire.
6 . CATHOLICOS
The term 'Catholicos' comes from two Greek
words 'Kath' and 'Holicos', meaning 'general primate', or 'general vicar'.
In the Roman Empire this was the title of an officer who held independent
charge of a large geographical region. The officer in charge of the
treasury was also given this title. Within the Roman Empire, Church
primates were known as 'Patriarchs' and not 'Catholicos', may be because
it was felt that the title of a secular officer did not fit a Church
leader. But this title was widely used in Churches outside the Empire.
Thus primates of Churches in Armenia, Persia and Georgia came to be known
as 'Catholicos'. Also it may be to show that these Churches were totally
independent, just as the government official with the same title in the
Empire exercised independent charge over a large area.
7 . MAPHRIANATE
The title and position of 'Maphrian' is
available only in the West Syrian tradition. This term is derived from the
root word pharoh which means 'to bear fruit' or 'to increase'. Thus 'Maphrian'
is 'one who gives out fruit' or 'one who causes to increase'.
In the Persian Empire, there lived a group of
Christians who accepted the authority of the Patriarch of Antioch, who was
the leader of the West Syrian Church community. The Patriarch appointed a
senior Metropolitan in the 7th century as the religious head of these 'Antiochenes',
and he came to be known as 'Maphrian'. This was not an independent
ecclesiastical position, but existed under the authority of the Patriarch
of Antioch. However as different from the Maphrianate, Patriarchate and
Catholicate were independent institutions. Never did the Patriarch come
under the authority of another Patriarch, similarly never was the
Catholicos under the authority of another Catholicos or Patriarch. Thus
the Maphrianate always remained under the jurisdiction of the Patriarch of
Antioch.
2. PERSIAN CATHOLICATE
From the 4th century through the 16th, the Malankara Church remained in
close relationship with the Persian Church. For a few centuries at least,
the spiritual oversight of the Persian Catholicos had spread to Malankara.
Moreover, a number of semblances could be seen between the Persian
Catholicate and the Catholicate in Malankara, and even the Primate of
Malankara Church prior to the establishment of the Catholicate. Therefore it
is useful and essential for a student of Church history to study the origin
and development of the Persian Catholicate.
1 . Bar Hebraeus
account
Bar Hebraeus (d.1286), who was the Maphrian of
Tigris in the 13th century gives an account of the origin of the Persian
Catholicate in his "Ecclesiastical History".
Bar Hebraeus has his place in the frontline of
the outstanding theologians of the Eastern Church. His scholarship spread
to different areas and his prolific writings include domains such as the
Bible, Theology, Church History, World History, Astronomy and Literature.
He is also credited with deep proficiency in Greek, Latin, Syriac and
Arabic languages. He was elevated as Maphrian in 1264. He has compiled the
history of the Persian Catholicate, Maphrianate and the Antiochian
patriarchate. The history of the Catholicate of the East constitutes Part
II of his Ecclesiastical History. As per this account., St. Thomas, the
Apostle, is the first Metropolitan of the East. According to Bar Hebraeus,
the immediate successors of St. Thomas were Adai, Agai, Mari, Ambrosius,
Abraham and Jacob.
Bar Hebraeus states that Jacob was ordained at
Jerusalem. He also gives the following account; towards the fag end of
life, Jacob sent two of his disciples - Ahodabooi and Kom Yesu - to
Antioch, with a request that one of them may be selected and ordained as
bishop by the Patriarch of Antioch.
However, Kom-Yesu was murdered by the Romans,
as the Roman authorities suspected that the two Persians were spies.
Ahodabooi escaped to Jerusalem and he was ordained as bishop by the
Metropolitans of Jerusalem on an instruction from the Patriarch of
Antioch, and sent him back to Persia. Moreover, the council of the bishops
of Jerusalem decided that from then on the bishop of Persia can elect and
instal a Catholicos as the head of the Persian Church. Bar Hebraeus adds
that this decision of the Jerusalem council of Bishops was not to the
liking of the Patriarch of Antioch. This incident took place in 231 A.D.
Ahodabooi returned to Persia and ruled over the
Persian Church. After his demise, the bishops of the Eastern Church
elected Shahaluppa and installed him as the Catholicos. Bar Hebraeus notes
that Shahaluppa was the first Catholicos Installed by the Persian bishops
themselves. He also states that the origin of the Catholicate of the East
is the installation of Ahodabooi in 231 In Jerusalem. Many books of Church
history has been compiled in Malankara on the basis of this account of Bar
Hebraeus. All these accounts state that the establishment of the
Catholicate of the East was in 231 A.D.
However, it must be noted that modern
historians are of the view that there are no historical documents to
substantiate the account given by Bar Hebraeus.
2 . Origin and
Development
The Gospel reached Persia during the first
century itself. St. Thomas the Apostle, Adai and Mari are reckoned as the
Apostles of Persia . The Gospel spread throughout Persia by
the second Century; and Churches were established in almost all important
centres in the third century. At about 290 A.D. Papa, who was a scholarly
church leader became the bishop of Cylesia which was the capital of
Persia. There is a view that Papa tried to become the sole leader of the
Persian Church, and that their move may be historically seen as having
laid the foundation for the Catholicate. It may be noted that the
political situation of the day was such as to be helpful to this move by
Papa. The Persian rulers of the day were Kings belonging to the Royal
House of Sassanians. The Sassanians recognized Christianity as the second
religion of the Empire, the first place being given to the ancient pagan
religion of Persia. Under these circumstances, the government needed to
have contact with a representative of the Christian Church, and naturally
enough, Papa claimed that position for himself.
In this endeavor of his, Papa was also
encouraged by the developments in the neighbouring centres of
Christianity. Bishops of Persia, Alexandria and other major cities were
trying to establish their authority over the nearby Churches. Very much in
the same vein, Papa tried to become the head of the Persian Church. Some
bishops of Perisa, and Papa's own Archdeacon Simon Bar Saba were against
this move. At their initiative, a general Council of the Persian Church
met in 315 A.D, and the council held that Papa was in the wrong, and
degraded his position in the Persian Church hierarchy. The Council
appointed Simon as the bishop of Persia in the place of papa. However Papa
did not give up without giving a fight. He took on his opponents with the
help of Mar Ephrem of Edessa and Mar Jacob Nissibin. Talks were held with
the new bishop Simon, with the promise of making him Papa's successor.
Before long, the two patched up and Papa became the sole ruler of the
Persian Church. Though Papa did not assume the title 'Catholicos' at that
timne, he may as well be considered as the first Catholicos of the Persian
Church.
Simon became the Catholicos of Cylesia after
the death of Papa in 328 A.D. By around 337 A.D, Emperor Saphor of Persia
started persecuting the Christian Community, and this persecution
continued for more than 40 years. During this period three Catholicoses,
many bishops, and thousands of faithful were massacred. At this time wars
took place between the Persian and Roman Empires, in which the Persian
soldiers Attacked and plundered the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire
like Syria and Antioch, and many people were captured as slaves or
prisoners of war. A greater portion of these prisoners were Antiochan
Christians. These Antiochan Christians did not like to identify themselves
with the Persian Church, instead they kept their identity in Persia, of
course under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Antioch.
Emperor Saphor died in 379 A.D, and his son
Varaphran became the Emperor. He too continued to persecute Christians.
Following his death in 399 A.D, Isdagard I assumed power in Persia. This
peace loving Emperor stopped the persecution of Christians and extended
his hand of friendship towards the Roman Empire. Roman emperors like
Arcadian and Theodosius had a very good working relationship with Isdagard
I. Besides, an incident which took place at that time helped to cement
their relationship. Isdagard was afflicted by an ailment of severe
headache. Morutho, the bishop of the city of Miafarkath, on the eastern
border of the Roman Empire, was a renowned physician. As per the desire of
Emperor Theodosius, Morutho travelled to Persia and cured the illness of
Isdagard. Thus Morutho won the goodwill of the Emperor. He came to know
that certain administrative arrangements were needed in the Persian Church
and with the permission and support of the Emperor he took the initiative
and called a synod of the Church in 410 A.D. Forty bishops participated in
this Council which was presided over by Catholicos Isaac. It was at this
Council that the Persian Church officially adopted the Nicene Creed. The
Council also adopted certain significant resolutions relating to the
administration of the Church and passed 21 decrees in that regard. The
Emperor of Persia was given the authority to nominate the Catholicos of
Persia. Thus the Council of 410 A.D. unequivocally declared the
autocephalous and independent status of the Persian Church.
However, it must be noted that the bishops of
the Roman. Empire were not happy about the independent growth of the
Persian Church. They insisted that the Persian Church should accept the
canons and traditions available in churches in the Roman Empire. An
attempt was also made to compel Persian Christians accept all the Council
resolutions adopted by Churches in the Roman Empire. With this intention,
Akkakius, bishop of Omid which belonged to the eastern province of the
Roman Empire visited Persia. At his behest, a council was convened in
Persia, in which only ten bishops of Persia participated.
As per the desire of Akkakius, the Council
decided to adopt many rituals, decrees and regulations of the western
churches (ie, the churches in the Roman Empire including Antioch). But the
majority of the hierarchs and laity of the Persian Church were against it.
So subsequently another Council met at Markabda in 424 A.D, which was
attended by 36 bishops. Akkakius, who was in Persia at that time, was
neither invited, nor did he attend this Council. This Council
unequivocally declared the total independence and autocephalous status of
the Persian Church. The decisions of this Council only confirmed the
supreme authority of the Persian Catholicos. It was also decided that any
controversy which may arise in the Persian Church, may be resolved under
the supervision of the Catholicos. In another significant resolution, the
Council declared that if there be a complaint against the Catholicos, no
one on earth shall try it, but it shall only be resolved in the Court of
Christ. The same Council also gave the appellation "Patriarch" to the
Catholicos.
3 . Persian Church
accepts the theology of Antioch
In the Roman Empire during the 5th Century,
there were two distinct theological schools - the Antiochan and the
Alexandrian. The Council of Ephesus (431 A.D), the Council of Chalcedon
(451) and the other major Councils of their period and the theological
debates associated with these were marked by the ideological clash of
these two schools. Both the parties cursed and excommunicated each other,
and this led to a division in the Church.
It is interesting to note that the theological
position of the Church of Antioch follows not the Antiochian schools, but
the Alexandrian tradition. Nestorios was a product of the Antiochian
school of theology. He was installed as the Patriarch of Constantinople in
428 A.D. At that time a controversy arose in Constantinople as to whether
Holy Virgin Mary could be called "Mother of God" (Theotokos). The real
cause of the debate was the diverging theological standpoints of Antiochan
and Alexandrian traditions. In this debate, Nestorios held that it is not
necessary to call virgin Mary as "Mother of God". But Cyril the Patriarch
of Alexandria insisted that it is indispensable to call the Virgin as "Theotokos".
Moreover, he also insisted that Nestorios should accept this position. In
this move Cyril was supported by Celestian, the bishop of Rome.
Actually, Nestorios was not introducing a novel
theological or Christological teaching. He only wanted to remain loyal and
committed to the Antiochan Theological tradition in which he was trained.
However Cyril and the stalwarts of the Alexandrian school were not
prepared to appreciate the position of Nestorios. Of course, there were
non-theological and circumstantial reasons behind this division.
As the issue was almost slipping out off hand,
Emperor Theodosius called the Council of Ephesus in 431 A.D. The Council
condemned Nestorios as a heretic, excommunicated him from the Church and
dethroned him as patriarch of Constantinople. This resulted in a great
schism in the Church. Many who belonged to the Antiochan school were
sympathetic towards Nestorios and declared that his excommunication was
wrong. But these sympathisers of Nestorios were persecuted by the Emperor.
To escape persecution, those who approved of the Antiochan school fled to
the Persian Empire. They were welcomed and were granted asylum in Persia;
since Persia was the sworn enemy of the Roman Empire. In course of time,
the Alexandrian theological position spread to the eastern provinces of
the Roman empire. The Antiochans belonging to the Antiochan school who
were now in Persia, greatly influenced the Persian Church. Persians became
more interested in the Antiochan theological position than the
Alexandrian.
Uraha (Edessa) was a major city on the border
of the two empires. At certain times in history, Uraha was in the Persian
Empire and at other time it was a city in the Roman Empire. It was a
famous centre of theological learning. From the very beginning, the major
theologians of Edessa were firmly based in the Antiochan school. These
theologians nurtured the school at Edessa and from 436 A.D. onwards.
Edessa became a well-known centre of Antiochan theology. At that time, the
Persian Church had no theological school of its own. The clergy of the
Persian Church got their training at the Uraha School. Thus from 436 A.D.
onwards the clergy of Persia were slowly getting based in the Antiochan
theology.
Subsequently Nestorian religious leaders Like
Bar Sauma and Narsai who came to Persia took the initiative to establish a
big theological school at Nisibin in Persia. This became instrumental in
disseminating Antiochan theology in Persia and it spread vastly in the
Persian Church during the first half of the 5th century. With the result,
the Church venerated Nestorios who was a leading figure in that
generation. In 486 A.D. when Akakios was the Catholicos, the Bishops'
Council of the Persian Church officially accepted the Antiochan theology
as well as Nestorios and other Church leaders. From then on, the Persian,
Church came to be known as 'Nestorian'.
It was a period of tremendous development for
the Persian Church following its acceptance of the Antiochan School of
theology. During the Middle Ages, there existed under the Persian
Catholicos a Large Church, which of course included the Churches in India
and China. However, the weakening of the Persian Church began, following
the acceptance of Islam by the Arab countries. Besides there was a schism
in the Persian Church by the middle of the 16th century, due to the
intrusion of the Roman Church. However the majority of the people stood
firmly behind the Catholicos. Some more divisions took place in the
Persian Church in the 20th century so much so that at present there are
two Catholicoses (Patriarchs) in the Persian Church, who claim the
succession of the ancient Catholicate.
4 . The Maphrian
It has been pointed out already that during the
wars between the Persian and the Roman empires, many prisoners of war and
slaves were brought to Persia from Antioch. These people were in communion
with, and under the Patriarch of Antioch. It was during the reign of
Saphor II (309 - 379), Kosrau I (531 - 579) and Kosrau II (590 - 627) that
the majority of these people reached Persia. They settled in Persia as a
separate group of people. Emperor Kosrau I had even built for these
settlers a city with the name, 'Antioch'. Subsequently, a small minority
of people in the Persian Church, who did not conform to the traditions of
the Persian Church also joined these settlers.
These people stayed in Persia and were under
the direct control of the Antiochan Patriarch. By then, two divisions came
up in the Antiochan Church - those who accepted the council of Chalcedon,
and those who did not. However those who rejected the Chalcedonian
Council, who formed the majority, were persecuted by the Roman emperors
and also by those who had accepted the Council. All this time a great man
arose gave heroic leadership to those people who had rejected the Council
of Chalcedon - that was Jacob Hebraeus. He travelled far and wide and
ordained many to the ministry and confirmed the people in the true faith (ie.
in the tradition of the Alexandrian theology). By about 559 A.D., Jacob
Hebraeus arrived in Persia. He ordained Aahudamme as Metropolitan for the
members of the Antiochan Church, in 559 A.D. Aahudamme was given the title
"The great Metropolitan of the East" (It is notable that Aahudamme was not
ordained as Catholicos but was only given a new title)
Among a large number of Arabs who were nomads,
Aahudamme did evangelistic work and appointed priests and monks for them.
It was he who founded the Inkena Monastry and the monastery called "Gadani"
near Tigris. He baptised a member of the Royal family, and when the
emperor learned about this, he ordered the execution of Aahudamme. After
the time of Aahudamme, Kom-yesu (578-609) and Samuel (614- 624) became
bishops. None of these had seats (Dioceses) of their own. Later in 629,
Athanasius Gamolo, the then Patriarch of Antioch, sent one Deacon John to
Persia. John spoke to the emperor and the Antiochan people in Persia
regarding the installation of 'the Great Metropolitan of the East'. The
five bishops available in Persia, with the permission of the Patriarch
ordained 'Morootho' as the Great Metropolitan. Since then, the Great
Metropolitan came to be known as "Maphrian". The Maphrian organized an
arch-diocese with Tigris as its headquarters. During this period, two
Councils were held in this see (Diocese) which made some significant
decisions regarditig the authority and privileges of the Maphrian. The
Patriarch of Antioch, Athanasius Gamolo, issued an order recognizing the
election and installation of "Morootho" and appointing him as the chief
shepherd of the Antiochan people in Persia. Morootho ruled for 20 years
and it was a period of steady development for the Church. Morootho divided
the Church into 10 dioceses for the sake of administrative convenience.
After the death of 'Morootho', the Maphrians were ordained from time to
time by the Persian bishops; and all these Maphrians had obtained the
permission and acceptance of the Patriarch. However, there were also
occasions when there was power struggle and differences of opinion between
the Patriarch and the Maphrian.
5 . Council of
Capharthutha
When the differences between the Patriarch and
the Maphrian snowballed, a council of the bishops under the jurisdiction
of the Patriarch and the Maphrian assembled in Capharthutha in February
869. This assembly codified 8 canons dealing with the Patriarch and the
Maphrian of Tigris. The canons are given below:
-
The bishops and the monks in the Mar Mathai's
Monastery, should submit to and obey the Maphrian whose seat is in
Tigris.
-
The Patriarch should not interfere in the
administration of the Church in Tigris, unless when invited. In the same
way the maphrian should not interfere in the Patriarchal See.
</ | |
